Sand as a Geopolitical Weapon: A Geopolitical Dossier on Territorial Transformation in Asia

The contemporary strategic environment in Southeast Asia and the South China Sea is undergoing a fundamental transformation, driven not only by naval maneuvering and diplomatic posturing but by the literal reconstruction of the earth's surface. Sand, traditionally viewed as a low-value bulk commodity, has emerged as a primary instrument of statecraft and a critical weapon in the pursuit of territorial expansion and military dominance. This dossier examines the systemic manipulation of geography through aggressive sand mining and land reclamation, analyzing how states in the region use sediment to delete existing sovereign territory, create new landmasses, and redraw the legal and military map of Asia.

The Vanishing Islands of Indonesia: The Erosion of Sovereignty

For an archipelagic state like Indonesia, the physical permanence of its outermost islands is a prerequisite for the maintenance of its maritime boundaries. Under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), the maritime zones of a nation—including its 12-nautical-mile territorial sea and its 200-nautical-mile Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ)—are measured from baselines that often rely on these small, peripheral landmasses.[1]THE REPUBLIC OF INDONESIA AND THE REPUBLIC OF SINGAPORE RELATING TO THE DELIMINATION OF THE TERRITORIAL SEAS OF THE TWO COUNTRIE https://faolex.fao.org/docs/pdf/ins107176.pdf The systematic extraction of sand from the Riau Islands and other strategic archipelagos has resulted in the literal deletion of Indonesian geography, creating a crisis of sovereignty that reverberates throughout the region.

The Riau Archipelago: Ground Zero for Geographical Deletion

The Riau Islands province, which shares a maritime border with Singapore to the northeast and Malaysia to the east, has been the primary source of the sand used to fuel the rapid expansion of the Singaporean landmass.[2]Riau Islands - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riau_Islands Between 1979 and the mid-2000s, a massive, often unregulated dredging industry targeted the small sand islands of this region.[3]'Nowhere to fish, nowhere to farm' - Beneath the Sands https://www.beneaththesands.earth/nowhere-to-fish-nowhere-to-farm By 2007, the Indonesian government issued a stark report confirming that 26 islands had officially disappeared from the map.[3]'Nowhere to fish, nowhere to farm' - Beneath the Sands https://www.beneaththesands.earth/nowhere-to-fish-nowhere-to-farm, [4]Minister says 24 Indonesian islands disappeared: report - Terra Daily https://www.terradaily.com/reports/Minister_says_24_Indonesian_islands_disappeared_report_999.html These islands did not sink due to sea-level rise alone; they were dredged out of existence to meet the construction and reclamation needs of foreign markets.[5]Seen and Not Seen: Tracing Sand Agency in ... - Galen Pardee https://drawingagency.org/Seen-and-Not-Seen

The following table identifies specific Indonesian islands that have either vanished or suffered catastrophic damage as a direct or indirect result of sand extraction activities:

The phenomenon of the "vanishing islands" is a second-order consequence of a global market failure. Sand is often treated as a common resource, leading to a "tragedy of the commons" where immediate economic gains for dredging companies and state-level developers override the long-term territorial and ecological security of the source nation.[15]Creating a sustainable sand industry requires greater regulation – here's why https://www.worldfinance.com/featured/creating-a-sustainable-sand-industry-requires-greater-regulation-heres-why, [16]Myanmar: Sand mining for reclamation of coastal areas is both, a geopolitical and conservation issue for the Southeast Asian region - ICSF https://icsf.net/newss/myanmar-sand-mining-for-reclamation-of-coastal-areas-is-both-a-geopolitical-and-conservation-issue The removal of sand alters wave patterns and underwater currents, which in turn accelerates the erosion of remaining landmasses, creating a domino effect that can threaten thousands of low-lying islands across the Indonesian archipelago.[13]They removed the sand from an entire island overnight, and the disappearance exposed a billion-dollar market that is making territories vanish from the map - Click Oil and Gas https://en.clickpetroleoegas.com.br/They-removed-the-sand-from-an-entire-island-duri, [17]The last time it was legal, exports of sea sand destroyed dozens of Indonesian islands. Now, the ban is being lifted - Yahoo News Australia https://au.news.yahoo.com/last-time-legal-exports-sea-192318934.html

Legal Implications: The Redrawing of Maritime Borders

The disappearance of Nipah Island (Pulau Nipa) represents the most significant geopolitical crisis in this context. Nipah is one of 12 "leading islands" of Indonesia, located only 10 kilometers from Singapore and overlooking some of the world's most critical shipping lanes.[18]Oath on Nipah Island - Directorate of Partnerships and International Affairs https://dia.upi.edu/oath-on-nipah-island/ In early 2000, Nipah was dredged to the brink of extinction, an act that carried the potential to erase the Indonesian baseline and push the country's maritime border southward.[18]Oath on Nipah Island - Directorate of Partnerships and International Affairs https://dia.upi.edu/oath-on-nipah-island/, [19]The Impact Of Indonesia's Sea Sand Export Policy To Singapore On https://ifrelresearch.org/index.php/jrp-widyakarya/article/download/4299/4507

Under the principles of UNCLOS, if an island that serves as a basepoint disappears, the nation's territorial sea and EEZ boundaries may be invalidated or forced to shift, resulting in a direct loss of maritime territory.[7](PDF) THE IMPACT OF SINGAPORE COASTAL RECLAMATION https://www.researchgate.net/publication/368085269_THE_IMPACT_OF_SINGAPORE_COASTAL_RECLAMATION_AGAINST_MARITIME_BOUNDARIES_AND_TERRITORIAL_SOVEREIGNTY_OF_INDONESIA-SINGAPORE, [18]Oath on Nipah Island - Directorate of Partnerships and International Affairs https://dia.upi.edu/oath-on-nipah-island/, [19]The Impact Of Indonesia's Sea Sand Export Policy To Singapore On https://ifrelresearch.org/index.php/jrp-widyakarya/article/download/4299/4507 Indonesia's response was a massive, high-stakes reclamation and restoration project. During the administration of President Megawati Soekarnoputri in 2004, the government began the physical reconstruction of Nipah to prevent it from sinking, an effort marked by the planting of cemara sea (sea pine) and the installation of a traffic monitoring base for anchoring vessels.[6]RI, Singapore sign maritime boundary agreement - Wed, March 11, 2009 - The Jakarta Post https://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2009/03/11/ri-singapore-sign-maritime-boundary-agreement.html, [18]Oath on Nipah Island - Directorate of Partnerships and International Affairs https://dia.upi.edu/oath-on-nipah-island/

The legal resolution of this border friction culminated in the 2009 Maritime Delimitation Treaty between Indonesia and Singapore.[20]Shifting Shores, Keeping Lines? Revisiting the Indonesia–Singapore Delimitation Treaty in Light of Subsequent Changes - Brill https://brill.com/view/journals/mpyo/aop/article-10.1163-18757413-bja10035/article-10.1163-18757413-bja10035.pdf, [21]Indonesia–Singapore border - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesia%E2%80%93Singapore_border This treaty was a milestone in "border diplomacy," as it saw Singapore formally renounce its reclaimed shorelines as the basis for determining the western segment of the maritime border.[6]RI, Singapore sign maritime boundary agreement - Wed, March 11, 2009 - The Jakarta Post https://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2009/03/11/ri-singapore-sign-maritime-boundary-agreement.html, [21]Indonesia–Singapore border - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesia%E2%80%93Singapore_border Instead, the two nations agreed to use the original 1973 basepoints, including Nipah Island and Sultan Shoal, ensuring that Singapore's land expansion did not translate into a legal advancement of its territorial sea at Indonesia's expense.[6]RI, Singapore sign maritime boundary agreement - Wed, March 11, 2009 - The Jakarta Post https://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2009/03/11/ri-singapore-sign-maritime-boundary-agreement.html, [21]Indonesia–Singapore border - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesia%E2%80%93Singapore_border, [22]Indonesia bans land sand exports to Singapore - NLB https://www.nlb.gov.sg/main/article-detail?cmsuuid=5c6485bb-c357-48be-9d12-bf7c1d422d0e However, the continued vulnerability of these basepoints to environmental change and illegal mining remains a "subsequent event" that could call the stability of the boundary into question in the future.[20]Shifting Shores, Keeping Lines? Revisiting the Indonesia–Singapore Delimitation Treaty in Light of Subsequent Changes - Brill https://brill.com/view/journals/mpyo/aop/article-10.1163-18757413-bja10035/article-10.1163-18757413-bja10035.pdf

Documentary Record of Sand Export Bans

Indonesia, Vietnam, and Cambodia have all instituted significant prohibitions on the export of sand to Singapore, often citing environmental destruction and the protection of national sovereignty as the primary motivations.

Indonesia's Multi-Tiered Prohibition

• February 2003 (Sea Sand Ban): President Megawati Soekarnoputri issued Presidential Decree No. 33 of 2002 and later Minister of Industry and Trade Decree No. 117/MPP/Kep/2/2003, which implemented a temporary halt on sea sand exports to prevent the sinking of islands in the Riau archipelago.[23]Indonesian sea sand mining: History and potential ramifications of lifting the decades-old export ban - The American Ceramic Society https://ceramics.org/ceramic-tech-today/indonesian-sea-sand-mining/, [24]Min. Industry 117/MPP/Kep/2/2003 Temporary Termination on Export of Sea Sand (Pasir Laut) https://www.flevin.com/id/lgso/translations/JICA%20Mirror/english/304.No.117_MPP_2003.ada-E.html, [25]Indonesia's risky gamble with sea sand exports | News - Eco-Business https://www.eco-business.com/news/indonesias-risky-gamble-with-sea-sand-exports/
• January 2007 (Land Sand Ban): The Ministry of Trade issued Regulation No. 02/M-DAG/PER/1/2007, which prohibited the export of land sand (used for concrete), soil, and topsoil.[26]Indonesia Bans Sand Exports to Singapore - Mines and Communities https://www.minesandcommunities.org/article.php?a=1837, [27]PROHIBITION OF EXPORT OF SAND, SOIL, AND TOP SOIL (INCLUDING HUMUS) https://faolex.fao.org/docs/pdf/ins71697.pdf This ban was prompted by the discovery that sand miners were all but demolishing islands lying between Indonesia and Singapore.[22]Indonesia bans land sand exports to Singapore - NLB https://www.nlb.gov.sg/main/article-detail?cmsuuid=5c6485bb-c357-48be-9d12-bf7c1d422d0e, [28]Land reclamation in Singapore - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land_reclamation_in_Singapore
• May 2023 (Partial Reopening): Government Regulation No. 26 of 2023 was introduced by President Joko Widodo to allow the utilization of "sedimentation results," including sea sand, for export after domestic needs were met.[19]The Impact Of Indonesia's Sea Sand Export Policy To Singapore On https://ifrelresearch.org/index.php/jrp-widyakarya/article/download/4299/4507, [29]Indonesia's risky gamble with sea sand exports | Dialogue Earth https://dialogue.earth/en/nature/indonesias-risky-gamble-with-sea-sand-exports/
• June 2025 (Supreme Court Intervention): The Indonesian Supreme Court struck down key provisions of the 2023 regulation, ruling that the commercial exploitation of sea sand violated higher legislation (Article 56 of Law No. 32/2014) and neglected the government's duty to protect marine ecosystems.[30]Indonesia's Supreme Court Cancels Regulation Allowing Sea Sand Export https://en.tempo.co/read/2021451/indonesias-supreme-court-cancels-regulation-allowing-sea-sand-export, [31]Indonesia moves to revise sea sand export policy after court ruling - Mongabay https://news.mongabay.com/2025/07/indonesia-sea-sand-dredging-exports-marine-fisheries/

Vietnam's Regulatory Framework

• October 2008 (Instruction No. 29): Prime Ministerial Instruction No. 29 established a temporary ban on the export of sand and gravel from rivers and seas.[32]Surge in Vietnam sand exported to Singapore https://wildshores.blogspot.com/2009/08/surge-in-vietnam-sand-exported-to.html, [33]Southeast Asia's Vanishing Sand Bans are Destroying the Region https://www.resilience.org/stories/2018-06-21/southeast-asias-vanishing-sand-bans-are-destroying-the-region/
• 2009 (Comprehensive Ban): Vietnam officially prohibited sand exports to Singapore, although a loophole allowed companies involved in river dredging projects to sell sand to recoup expenses.[34]Sand exported unethically from Vietnam ends up in Singapore - Mothership.SG https://mothership.sg/2017/04/sand-exported-unethically-from-vietnam-end-up-in-singapore/, [35]Shifting sands: illegal VN sales to Singapore - Open Development Mekong https://opendevelopmentmekong.net/news/shifting-sands-illegal-vn-sales-to-singapore/
• November 2017 (Silica Sand Ban): The Minister of Finance issued Official Letter No. 7406/TCHQ-GSQL to specifically ban the export of white silica sand.[36]Vietnam: Introduced Export Ban on White Silica Sand - Global Trade Alert https://globaltradealert.org/intervention/80797-vietnam-introduced-export-ban-on-white-silica-sand

Cambodia's Legislative Response

• May 2009 (River Sand Ban): Prime Minister Hun Sen announced a ban on river sand exports, though Global Witness investigations found that sea sand exports remained merely "limited" and continued under various licenses.[37]Shifting Sands final may 8 inc cover.indd https://yale-threesixty.files.svdcdn.com/production/digest/shifting_sand_final.pdf, [38]Singapore is dredging our home away: hands off our sand! - Rainforest Rescue https://www.rainforest-rescue.org/petitions/1010/singapore-is-dredging-our-home-away-hands-off-our-sand
• November 2016 (Temporary Halt): All sand exports to Singapore were suspended following the exposure of massive data discrepancies between the two nations.[39]S'pore's alleged use of too much Cambodian sand to reclaim land highlighted again in recent documentary - Mothership.SG - News from Singapore, Asia and around the world https://mothership.sg/2019/04/land-reclamation-cambodia-sand-singapore/, [40]Cambodia Bans Exports of Two Types of Sand From Koh Kong - Radio Free Asia https://www.rfa.org/english/news/cambodia/sand-07112017155042.html
• July 2017 (Permanent Ban): The Ministry of Mines and Energy permanently banned the export of sand for construction and "sand mud" from Koh Kong province, effectively ending the large-scale trade with Singapore.[40]Cambodia Bans Exports of Two Types of Sand From Koh Kong - Radio Free Asia https://www.rfa.org/english/news/cambodia/sand-07112017155042.html, [41]Ban on Cambodian Sand Exports to Singapore | NorthStandard | Marine Insurance https://north-standard.com/insights-and-resources/resources/archive/news/ban-on-cambodian-sand-exports-to-singapore, [42]In Cambodia, Activists Risk Prison to Expose Ecological Scars of Sand Mining - Undark Magazine https://undark.org/2017/10/25/sand-mining-dredging-cambodia/

Singapore's Expansion: The Geopolitics of Infilling

Singapore's status as a global financial and logistics hub is intrinsically tied to its ability to manufacture land. Since 1965, the city-state has engaged in an existential struggle for space, using land reclamation to overcome its natural geographic limitations.[43]Singapore's Lost Coast: Land Reclamation, National Development and the Erasure of Human and Ecological Communities, 1822-Present | Environment and History - Liverpool University Press http://www.liverpooluniversitypress.co.uk/doi/10.3197/096734019X156318469287, [44]Land From Sand: Singapore's Reclamation Story - BiblioAsia https://biblioasia.nlb.gov.sg/vol-13/issue-1/apr-jun-2017/land-from-sand/ This growth, while economically transformative, has made Singapore the world's largest importer of sand, drawing material from throughout the region to expand its territorial domain.[16]Myanmar: Sand mining for reclamation of coastal areas is both, a geopolitical and conservation issue for the Southeast Asian region - ICSF https://icsf.net/newss/myanmar-sand-mining-for-reclamation-of-coastal-areas-is-both-a-geopolitical-and-conservation-issue, [38]Singapore is dredging our home away: hands off our sand! - Rainforest Rescue https://www.rainforest-rescue.org/petitions/1010/singapore-is-dredging-our-home-away-hands-off-our-sand, [45]Sand | SG101 https://www.sg101.gov.sg/environment/case-studies/sand/

Quantitative Land Area Growth

Over the past two centuries, Singapore's land area has expanded by approximately 25%, increasing from a baseline of 582 square kilometers in the 1960s to over 735 square kilometers today.[44]Land From Sand: Singapore's Reclamation Story - BiblioAsia https://biblioasia.nlb.gov.sg/vol-13/issue-1/apr-jun-2017/land-from-sand/, [46]Green + Growth: Singapore from Above - ArcGIS StoryMaps https://storymaps.arcgis.com/stories/34ac438da27d45c1b536ff702f6e04d8, [47]Geography of Singapore - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography_of_Singapore The post-independence era has seen the most dramatic acceleration of this process, with nearly 14,000 hectares (140 square kilometers) added through reclamation.[44]Land From Sand: Singapore's Reclamation Story - BiblioAsia https://biblioasia.nlb.gov.sg/vol-13/issue-1/apr-jun-2017/land-from-sand/

The Strategic Sand Reserve and Resource Management

The vulnerability of Singapore's construction industry to geopolitical leverage was starkly revealed during the 2007 "Sand Crisis," when Indonesia's ban caused prices to spike from US3tonearlyUS200 per tonne on the black market.[22]Indonesia bans land sand exports to Singapore - NLB https://www.nlb.gov.sg/main/article-detail?cmsuuid=5c6485bb-c357-48be-9d12-bf7c1d422d0e, [52]Sand smuggling in Southeast Asia - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sand_smuggling_in_Southeast_Asia To mitigate such risks, Singapore maintains a "Strategic Sand Reserve"—a national stockpile that functions as an economic buffer, similar to a strategic oil reserve.[53]The Mountainous and Surreal Sand Reserves of Singapore https://www.untappedcities.com/the-mountainous-and-surreal-sand-reserves-of-singapore/

• Primary Location: The stockpile is located in an isolated area of eastern Singapore, adjacent to the Bedok Reservoir.[51]April 2017 - Bharatkalyan97 http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.com/2017/04/, [53]The Mountainous and Surreal Sand Reserves of Singapore https://www.untappedcities.com/the-mountainous-and-surreal-sand-reserves-of-singapore/
• Security Profile: The site is a restricted zone, surrounded by high-security fencing and patrol houses.[51]April 2017 - Bharatkalyan97 http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.com/2017/04/, [53]The Mountainous and Surreal Sand Reserves of Singapore https://www.untappedcities.com/the-mountainous-and-surreal-sand-reserves-of-singapore/
• Operational Role: During the 2007 supply crunch, the Building and Construction Authority (BCA) released sand from this reserve to the market to stabilize costs for public infrastructure projects.[22]Indonesia bans land sand exports to Singapore - NLB https://www.nlb.gov.sg/main/article-detail?cmsuuid=5c6485bb-c357-48be-9d12-bf7c1d422d0e, [45]Sand | SG101 https://www.sg101.gov.sg/environment/case-studies/sand/
• Stockpile Management: Additional "floating" stockpiles are managed at the Tuas View Extension, where hopper barges and dredgers transport material to support large-scale marine construction.[54]Transport of sand material to stockpile at Tuas View Extension - GAC https://www.gac.com/hot-port-news/transport-of-sand-material-to-stockpile-at-tuas-view-extension As the cost of imported sand rises and the environmental and political toll on neighboring countries increases, Singapore is transitioning toward more sustainable land-building methods. The adoption of the "empoldering" method at Pulau Tekong has reduced sand requirements by nearly 50%, utilizing a system of dikes and pumps to reclaim land below sea level rather than filling it to the surface.[50]Singapore completes first polder project, reclaims 800ha of land at Pulau Tekong - CNA https://www.channelnewsasia.com/singapore/polder-pulau-tekong-first-land-reclamation-military-training-hdb-pub-5332341, [55]Dutch polder concept as new land reclamation method at Pulau Tekong - Deltares https://www.deltares.nl/en/expertise/projects/singapore-adopts-dutch-polder-concept-as-new-land-reclamation-method-at-pulau-tekong, [56]Tekong Polder | PUB, Singapore's National Water Agency https://www.pub.gov.sg/Resources/News-Room/PressReleases/2025/09/Tekong-Polder This technological pivot is a strategic response to the diminishing availability of regional sediment.

China's Great Wall of Sand: The Terraforming of the South China Sea

While Singapore uses sand for survival and Indonesia seeks to protect it as territory, China has weaponized sand to project power and enforce revisionist maritime claims in the South China Sea. Through a rapid campaign of terraforming known as the "Great Wall of Sand," Beijing has converted remote, submerged reefs in the Spratly Islands into fortified military outposts.[57]Great Wall of Sand | Military Wiki | Fandom https://military-history.fandom.com/wiki/Great_Wall_of_Sand, [58]Strategy and law in the South China Sea disputes workshop report - UNSW Sydney https://www.unsw.edu.au/content/dam/pdfs/unsw-canberra/research/research-excellence/2023-01-south-china-sea-workshop-report.pdf, [59]The Rise of a Great Wall of Sand in the South China Sea - Lund University Publications https://lup.lub.lu.se/student-papers/record/9143733/file/9143736.pdf

Terraforming Operations at Subi and Mischief Reefs

Since late 2013, China has reclaimed more than 3,200 acres (approx. 13 square kilometers) across seven features in the Spratlys: Subi, Mischief, Fiery Cross, Cuarteron, Gaven, Johnson, and Hughes Reefs.[57]Great Wall of Sand | Military Wiki | Fandom https://military-history.fandom.com/wiki/Great_Wall_of_Sand, [60]China's New Spratly Island Defenses - Asia Maritime Transparency Initiative https://amti.csis.org/chinas-new-spratly-island-defenses/, [61]China Tracker | Asia Maritime Transparency Initiative https://amti.csis.org/island-tracker/china/

Subi Reef (Zamora Reef)

Subi Reef, located only 26 kilometers from the Philippines' Pag-asa Island, was originally a low-tide elevation (LTE)—a feature submerged at high tide.[62]Subi Reef | Asia Maritime Transparency Initiative - CSIS https://amti.csis.org/subi-reef/, [63]China's Spratly ISR and EW Upgrades | Asia Maritime Transparency https://amti.csis.org/chinas-spratly-isr-and-ew-upgrades/ Through dredging, China created approximately 976 to 980 acres of reclaimed land.[61]China Tracker | Asia Maritime Transparency Initiative https://amti.csis.org/island-tracker/china/, [62]Subi Reef | Asia Maritime Transparency Initiative - CSIS https://amti.csis.org/subi-reef/

• Infrastructure: Includes a 3,000-meter runway, massive hangars capable of housing combat aircraft, and advanced radar domes.[61]China Tracker | Asia Maritime Transparency Initiative https://amti.csis.org/island-tracker/china/, [63]China's Spratly ISR and EW Upgrades | Asia Maritime Transparency https://amti.csis.org/chinas-spratly-isr-and-ew-upgrades/
• Signals Intelligence: Features "elephant cage" high-frequency antenna arrays for broad-spectrum monitoring of the region.[63]China's Spratly ISR and EW Upgrades | Asia Maritime Transparency https://amti.csis.org/chinas-spratly-isr-and-ew-upgrades/, [64]A Constructive Year for Chinese Base Building | Asia Maritime Transparency Initiative https://amti.csis.org/constructive-year-chinese-building/

Mischief Reef (Panganiban Reef)

Mischief Reef is the largest of China's artificial islands, totaling approximately 1,379 acres (5.58 million square meters).[61]China Tracker | Asia Maritime Transparency Initiative https://amti.csis.org/island-tracker/china/, [63]China's Spratly ISR and EW Upgrades | Asia Maritime Transparency https://amti.csis.org/chinas-spratly-isr-and-ew-upgrades/ It is also the most legally contested, as the 2016 Permanent Court of Arbitration (PCA) ruled it to be an LTE located within the Philippines' EEZ and continental shelf.[65]South China Sea Arbitration Ruling: What Happened and What's Next? https://www.uscc.gov/sites/default/files/Research/Issue%20Brief_South%20China%20Sea%20Arbitration%20Ruling%20What%20Happened%20and%20What's%20Next071216.pdf, [66]Document: South China Sea Tribunal Decision - USNI News https://news.usni.org/2016/07/12/document-overview-south-china-sea-tribunal-decision, [67]Draft 23 December 2016 Artificial Islands in the South China Sea: The Legal Regime and Implications of the Award J. Ashley Roac - NUS Centre for International Law https://cil.nus.edu.sg/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/Session-4-on-Installations-Artificial-Islands-a

• Fortification: China has built an airfield, hardened shelters for surface-to-air missiles (SAM), and deep-water harbor facilities.[63]China's Spratly ISR and EW Upgrades | Asia Maritime Transparency https://amti.csis.org/chinas-spratly-isr-and-ew-upgrades/, [68]Chinese Power Projection Capabilities in the South China Sea | Asia Maritime Transparency Initiative https://amti.csis.org/chinese-power-projection/
• Electronic Warfare: Features advanced EW pads and circular direction-finding antenna arrays installed in 2023.[63]China's Spratly ISR and EW Upgrades | Asia Maritime Transparency https://amti.csis.org/chinas-spratly-isr-and-ew-upgrades/

Dredging Technology: The Mechanics of Creation

The unprecedented speed of China's terraforming was driven by a domestic fleet of "magic island-making" ships. China tripled its dredging capacity between 2000 and 2015, developing some of the most powerful cutter suction dredgers (CSD) in the world.[69]China will again triple dredging and will have over 50 fortified islands by 2030 in South China Sea https://imoa.ph/china-will-triple-dredging-will-50-fortified-islands-2030-south-china-sea/

Military Strategy: The Fait Accompli

China's strategy in the South China Sea is a classic example of "salami slicing"—incrementally changing the physical reality of the region through terraforming until it reaches a fait accompli that cannot be reversed without high-intensity conflict.[77]A step-change to Beijing's "lawfare" in the South China Sea | Lowy Institute https://www.lowyinstitute.org/the-interpreter/step-change-beijing-s-lawfare-south-china-sea, [78]Institute for National Defense and Security Research-Defense Security Brief https://indsr.org.tw/en/respublicationcon?uid=15&resid=3001&pid=5368, [79]The Import of Hybrid Activities in the South China Sea - Air University https://www.airuniversity.af.edu/JIPA/Display/Article/3532882/the-import-of-hybrid-activities-in-the-south-china-sea/ By turning submerged features into "sand islands," China seeks to establish a permanent military presence that serves three primary goals:

1. Anti-Access/Area-Denial (A2/AD): The islands house SAM batteries (HQ-9) and anti-ship cruise missiles (YJ-12B, YJ-62), creating a protective envelope over the sea lanes.[63]China's Spratly ISR and EW Upgrades | Asia Maritime Transparency https://amti.csis.org/chinas-spratly-isr-and-ew-upgrades/, [68]Chinese Power Projection Capabilities in the South China Sea | Asia Maritime Transparency Initiative https://amti.csis.org/chinese-power-projection/
2. Surveillance and Intelligence: The extensive radar and communications arrays (ISR radomes) provide overlapping coverage, allowing China to monitor all ship and aircraft movements in the South China Sea.[63]China's Spratly ISR and EW Upgrades | Asia Maritime Transparency https://amti.csis.org/chinas-spratly-isr-and-ew-upgrades/, [68]Chinese Power Projection Capabilities in the South China Sea | Asia Maritime Transparency Initiative https://amti.csis.org/chinese-power-projection/
3. Forward Operational Bases: The islands provide harbors and runways that extend the operational range of the People's Liberation Army Navy (PLAN) and the China Coast Guard (CCG), allowing them to harass the vessels of other claimant states far from the Chinese mainland.[77]A step-change to Beijing's "lawfare" in the South China Sea | Lowy Institute https://www.lowyinstitute.org/the-interpreter/step-change-beijing-s-lawfare-south-china-sea, [78]Institute for National Defense and Security Research-Defense Security Brief https://indsr.org.tw/en/respublicationcon?uid=15&resid=3001&pid=5368, [80]Think Small to Win Big in the South China Sea | Proceedings - U.S. Naval Institute https://www.usni.org/magazines/proceedings/2022/july/think-small-win-big-south-china-sea

The Legal Frontier: UNCLOS and the Status of Artificial Islands

The critical legal question in this geopolitical struggle is whether the transformation of a submerged reef into a "sand island" generates any maritime entitlements. The 2016 PCA ruling in The Philippines v. China provided a definitive answer, which China has continued to reject as "null and void".[65]South China Sea Arbitration Ruling: What Happened and What's Next? https://www.uscc.gov/sites/default/files/Research/Issue%20Brief_South%20China%20Sea%20Arbitration%20Ruling%20What%20Happened%20and%20What's%20Next071216.pdf, [81]The Legal Victory of the Philippines against China - Global Challenges https://globalchallenges.ch/issue/1/legal-victory-for-the-philippines-against-china-a-case-study/, [82]The South China Sea Arbitration Award - U.S. Naval War College https://digital-commons.usnwc.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2946&context=ils

The Distinction Between Islands, Rocks, and LTEs

Under UNCLOS Article 121, the status of a maritime feature—and the territory it generates—is determined by its natural condition, prior to human modification.[65]South China Sea Arbitration Ruling: What Happened and What's Next? https://www.uscc.gov/sites/default/files/Research/Issue%20Brief_South%20China%20Sea%20Arbitration%20Ruling%20What%20Happened%20and%20What's%20Next071216.pdf, [82]The South China Sea Arbitration Award - U.S. Naval War College https://digital-commons.usnwc.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2946&context=ils, [83]RIAA XXXIII: The South China Sea Arbitration between the Republic of the Philippines and the People's Republic of China, Award - OFFICE OF LEGAL AFFAIRS | https://legal.un.org/riaa/cases/vol_XXXIII/153-617.pdf

• Islands: Naturally formed areas of land that stay above water at high tide and can sustain human habitation or economic life. They generate a 12-nm territorial sea and a 200-nm EEZ.[65]South China Sea Arbitration Ruling: What Happened and What's Next? https://www.uscc.gov/sites/default/files/Research/Issue%20Brief_South%20China%20Sea%20Arbitration%20Ruling%20What%20Happened%20and%20What's%20Next071216.pdf, [84]The Legal Regime of Islands after the South China Sea Award—Orphaned or Influential? An Essay in Honor of Ted L. McDorman https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00908320.2024.2413612
• Rocks: Features that stay above water at high tide but cannot sustain habitation. They generate a 12-nm territorial sea but no EEZ.[65]South China Sea Arbitration Ruling: What Happened and What's Next? https://www.uscc.gov/sites/default/files/Research/Issue%20Brief_South%20China%20Sea%20Arbitration%20Ruling%20What%20Happened%20and%20What's%20Next071216.pdf
• Low-Tide Elevations (LTEs): Land features submerged at high tide. They generate no maritime territory and cannot be legally appropriated through occupation.[65]South China Sea Arbitration Ruling: What Happened and What's Next? https://www.uscc.gov/sites/default/files/Research/Issue%20Brief_South%20China%20Sea%20Arbitration%20Ruling%20What%20Happened%20and%20What's%20Next071216.pdf, [82]The South China Sea Arbitration Award - U.S. Naval War College https://digital-commons.usnwc.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2946&context=ils, [84]The Legal Regime of Islands after the South China Sea Award—Orphaned or Influential? An Essay in Honor of Ted L. McDorman https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00908320.2024.2413612
• Artificial Islands: Under Article 60, artificial islands do not possess the status of islands. They have no territorial sea of their own, and their presence does not affect the delimitation of the territorial sea or EEZ.[65]South China Sea Arbitration Ruling: What Happened and What's Next? https://www.uscc.gov/sites/default/files/Research/Issue%20Brief_South%20China%20Sea%20Arbitration%20Ruling%20What%20Happened%20and%20What's%20Next071216.pdf, [66]Document: South China Sea Tribunal Decision - USNI News https://news.usni.org/2016/07/12/document-overview-south-china-sea-tribunal-decision, [67]Draft 23 December 2016 Artificial Islands in the South China Sea: The Legal Regime and Implications of the Award J. Ashley Roac - NUS Centre for International Law https://cil.nus.edu.sg/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/Session-4-on-Installations-Artificial-Islands-a The Tribunal ruled that Mischief Reef and Subi Reef are naturally LTEs.[65]South China Sea Arbitration Ruling: What Happened and What's Next? https://www.uscc.gov/sites/default/files/Research/Issue%20Brief_South%20China%20Sea%20Arbitration%20Ruling%20What%20Happened%20and%20What's%20Next071216.pdf, [82]The South China Sea Arbitration Award - U.S. Naval War College https://digital-commons.usnwc.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2946&context=ils Therefore, despite China's massive terraforming and the stationing of military personnel, these features remain legally submerged seabed.[81]The Legal Victory of the Philippines against China - Global Challenges https://globalchallenges.ch/issue/1/legal-victory-for-the-philippines-against-china-a-case-study/, [85]CHINA'S CLAIMS DASHED IN SOUTH CHINA SEA ARBITRATION - 6 St James Hall Chambers https://sixthfloor.squarespace.com/s/Stephens-T_LSJ-August-2016-Final-copy.pdf China's construction of artificial islands on Mischief Reef was found to be an unlawful violation of the Philippines' sovereign rights within its EEZ.[65]South China Sea Arbitration Ruling: What Happened and What's Next? https://www.uscc.gov/sites/default/files/Research/Issue%20Brief_South%20China%20Sea%20Arbitration%20Ruling%20What%20Happened%20and%20What's%20Next071216.pdf, [82]The South China Sea Arbitration Award - U.S. Naval War College https://digital-commons.usnwc.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2946&context=ils

Geopolitical Synthesis and Conclusion

The weaponization of sand in Asia represents a paradigm shift in how states interact with geography. Territory is no longer a static endowment of nature; it is a resource to be extracted, traded, and engineered to serve national ambitions. In the case of Indonesia, the depletion of its archipelagic basepoints has necessitated a defensive restoration of geography to protect its maritime borders from legal erosion.[6]RI, Singapore sign maritime boundary agreement - Wed, March 11, 2009 - The Jakarta Post https://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2009/03/11/ri-singapore-sign-maritime-boundary-agreement.html, [18]Oath on Nipah Island - Directorate of Partnerships and International Affairs https://dia.upi.edu/oath-on-nipah-island/ For Singapore, sand has been the physical currency of its survival, a bulk commodity that has enabled it to grow by 25% while creating an existential dependency on the environmental and political stability of its neighbors.[16]Myanmar: Sand mining for reclamation of coastal areas is both, a geopolitical and conservation issue for the Southeast Asian region - ICSF https://icsf.net/newss/myanmar-sand-mining-for-reclamation-of-coastal-areas-is-both-a-geopolitical-and-conservation-issue, [43]Singapore's Lost Coast: Land Reclamation, National Development and the Erasure of Human and Ecological Communities, 1822-Present | Environment and History - Liverpool University Press http://www.liverpooluniversitypress.co.uk/doi/10.3197/096734019X156318469287, [44]Land From Sand: Singapore's Reclamation Story - BiblioAsia https://biblioasia.nlb.gov.sg/vol-13/issue-1/apr-jun-2017/land-from-sand/ For China, the terraforming of the South China Sea is a strategic attempt to redraw the map through brute physical persistence, using dredging technology to manufacture "sovereignty" where none exists under international law.[58]Strategy and law in the South China Sea disputes workshop report - UNSW Sydney https://www.unsw.edu.au/content/dam/pdfs/unsw-canberra/research/research-excellence/2023-01-south-china-sea-workshop-report.pdf, [78]Institute for National Defense and Security Research-Defense Security Brief https://indsr.org.tw/en/respublicationcon?uid=15&resid=3001&pid=5368, [82]The South China Sea Arbitration Award - U.S. Naval War College https://digital-commons.usnwc.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2946&context=ils The "Great Wall of Sand" and the "Vanishing Islands" are two sides of the same geopolitical coin. As sand becomes increasingly scarce and the environmental toll of its extraction more profound, the competition for this granular resource will likely remain a central flashpoint in Asian security. The stability of regional borders now depends as much on the control of sediment as it does on the movements of navies and the ink of treaties. The era of anthropogenic geography has arrived, and in this new cartographic order, sand is the ultimate arbiter of power.

Sources

1. THE REPUBLIC OF INDONESIA AND THE REPUBLIC OF SINGAPORE RELATING TO THE DELIMINATION OF THE TERRITORIAL SEAS OF THE TWO COUNTRIE, https://faolex.fao.org/docs/pdf/ins107176.pdf
2. Riau Islands - Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riau_Islands
3. 'Nowhere to fish, nowhere to farm' - Beneath the Sands, https://www.beneaththesands.earth/nowhere-to-fish-nowhere-to-farm
4. Minister says 24 Indonesian islands disappeared: report - Terra Daily, https://www.terradaily.com/reports/Minister_says_24_Indonesian_islands_disappeared_report_999.html
5. Seen and Not Seen: Tracing Sand Agency in ... - Galen Pardee, https://drawingagency.org/Seen-and-Not-Seen
6. RI, Singapore sign maritime boundary agreement - Wed, March 11, 2009 - The Jakarta Post, https://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2009/03/11/ri-singapore-sign-maritime-boundary-agreement.html
7. (PDF) THE IMPACT OF SINGAPORE COASTAL RECLAMATION ..., https://www.researchgate.net/publication/368085269_THE_IMPACT_OF_SINGAPORE_COASTAL_RECLAMATION_AGAINST_MARITIME_BOUNDARIES_AND_TERRITORIAL_SOVEREIGNTY_OF_INDONESIA-SINGAPORE
8. Mining-Scarred Island in Indonesia's Riau Islands Goes Viral Again - Tempo.co English, https://en.tempo.co/read/2075969/mining-scarred-island-in-indonesias-riau-islands-goes-viral-again
9. Mining-scarred island in Indonesia's Riau Islands goes viral again - APSN, https://www.asia-pacific-solidarity.net/news/2025-12-24/mining-scarred-island-indonesias-riau-islands-goes-viral-again.html
10. Two islands vanish, four more may sink soon, says Walhi - The Jakarta Post, https://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2020/01/16/two-islands-vanish-four-more-may-sink-soon-says-walhi.html
11. Two Indonesian islands vanish, more may sink | The Straits Times, https://www.straitstimes.com/asia/se-asia/two-indonesian-islands-vanish-more-may-sink
12. Two islands vanish, four more may soon sink, Walhi blames environmental problems - Indonesia | ReliefWeb, https://reliefweb.int/report/indonesia/two-islands-vanish-four-more-may-soon-sink-walhi-blames-environmental-problems
13. They removed the sand from an entire island overnight, and the disappearance exposed a billion-dollar market that is making territories vanish from the map - Click Oil and Gas, https://en.clickpetroleoegas.com.br/They-removed-the-sand-from-an-entire-island-during-the-early-morning-hours--and-the-disappearance-exposed-a-billion-dollar-market./
14. Small Islands of Indonesia, The Land of Mines - Jaringan Advokasi Tambang, https://jatam.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/Small-island-book.pdf
15. Creating a sustainable sand industry requires greater regulation – here's why, https://www.worldfinance.com/featured/creating-a-sustainable-sand-industry-requires-greater-regulation-heres-why
16. Myanmar: Sand mining for reclamation of coastal areas is both, a geopolitical and conservation issue for the Southeast Asian region - ICSF, https://icsf.net/newss/myanmar-sand-mining-for-reclamation-of-coastal-areas-is-both-a-geopolitical-and-conservation-issue-for-the-southeast-asian-region/
17. The last time it was legal, exports of sea sand destroyed dozens of Indonesian islands. Now, the ban is being lifted - Yahoo News Australia, https://au.news.yahoo.com/last-time-legal-exports-sea-192318934.html
18. Oath on Nipah Island - Directorate of Partnerships and International Affairs, https://dia.upi.edu/oath-on-nipah-island/
19. The Impact Of Indonesia's Sea Sand Export Policy To Singapore On ..., https://ifrelresearch.org/index.php/jrp-widyakarya/article/download/4299/4507
20. Shifting Shores, Keeping Lines? Revisiting the Indonesia–Singapore Delimitation Treaty in Light of Subsequent Changes - Brill, https://brill.com/view/journals/mpyo/aop/article-10.1163-18757413-bja10035/article-10.1163-18757413-bja10035.pdf
21. Indonesia–Singapore border - Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesia%E2%80%93Singapore_border
22. Indonesia bans land sand exports to Singapore - NLB, https://www.nlb.gov.sg/main/article-detail?cmsuuid=5c6485bb-c357-48be-9d12-bf7c1d422d0e
23. Indonesian sea sand mining: History and potential ramifications of lifting the decades-old export ban - The American Ceramic Society, https://ceramics.org/ceramic-tech-today/indonesian-sea-sand-mining/
24. Min. Industry 117/MPP/Kep/2/2003 Temporary Termination on Export of Sea Sand (Pasir Laut), https://www.flevin.com/id/lgso/translations/JICA%20Mirror/english/304.No.117_MPP_2003.ada-E.html
25. Indonesia's risky gamble with sea sand exports | News - Eco-Business, https://www.eco-business.com/news/indonesias-risky-gamble-with-sea-sand-exports/
26. Indonesia Bans Sand Exports to Singapore - Mines and Communities, https://www.minesandcommunities.org/article.php?a=1837
27. PROHIBITION OF EXPORT OF SAND, SOIL, AND TOP SOIL (INCLUDING HUMUS), https://faolex.fao.org/docs/pdf/ins71697.pdf
28. Land reclamation in Singapore - Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land_reclamation_in_Singapore
29. Indonesia's risky gamble with sea sand exports | Dialogue Earth, https://dialogue.earth/en/nature/indonesias-risky-gamble-with-sea-sand-exports/
30. Indonesia's Supreme Court Cancels Regulation Allowing Sea Sand Export, https://en.tempo.co/read/2021451/indonesias-supreme-court-cancels-regulation-allowing-sea-sand-export
31. Indonesia moves to revise sea sand export policy after court ruling - Mongabay, https://news.mongabay.com/2025/07/indonesia-sea-sand-dredging-exports-marine-fisheries/
32. Surge in Vietnam sand exported to Singapore, https://wildshores.blogspot.com/2009/08/surge-in-vietnam-sand-exported-to.html
33. Southeast Asia's Vanishing Sand Bans are Destroying the Region ..., https://www.resilience.org/stories/2018-06-21/southeast-asias-vanishing-sand-bans-are-destroying-the-region/
34. Sand exported unethically from Vietnam ends up in Singapore - Mothership.SG, https://mothership.sg/2017/04/sand-exported-unethically-from-vietnam-end-up-in-singapore/
35. Shifting sands: illegal VN sales to Singapore - Open Development Mekong, https://opendevelopmentmekong.net/news/shifting-sands-illegal-vn-sales-to-singapore/
36. Vietnam: Introduced Export Ban on White Silica Sand - Global Trade Alert, https://globaltradealert.org/intervention/80797-vietnam-introduced-export-ban-on-white-silica-sand
37. Shifting Sands final may 8 inc cover.indd, https://yale-threesixty.files.svdcdn.com/production/digest/shifting_sand_final.pdf
38. Singapore is dredging our home away: hands off our sand! - Rainforest Rescue, https://www.rainforest-rescue.org/petitions/1010/singapore-is-dredging-our-home-away-hands-off-our-sand
39. S'pore's alleged use of too much Cambodian sand to reclaim land highlighted again in recent documentary - Mothership.SG - News from Singapore, Asia and around the world, https://mothership.sg/2019/04/land-reclamation-cambodia-sand-singapore/
40. Cambodia Bans Exports of Two Types of Sand From Koh Kong - Radio Free Asia, https://www.rfa.org/english/news/cambodia/sand-07112017155042.html
41. Ban on Cambodian Sand Exports to Singapore | NorthStandard | Marine Insurance, https://north-standard.com/insights-and-resources/resources/archive/news/ban-on-cambodian-sand-exports-to-singapore
42. In Cambodia, Activists Risk Prison to Expose Ecological Scars of Sand Mining - Undark Magazine, https://undark.org/2017/10/25/sand-mining-dredging-cambodia/
43. Singapore's Lost Coast: Land Reclamation, National Development and the Erasure of Human and Ecological Communities, 1822-Present | Environment and History - Liverpool University Press, http://www.liverpooluniversitypress.co.uk/doi/10.3197/096734019X15631846928710
44. Land From Sand: Singapore's Reclamation Story - BiblioAsia, https://biblioasia.nlb.gov.sg/vol-13/issue-1/apr-jun-2017/land-from-sand/
45. Sand | SG101, https://www.sg101.gov.sg/environment/case-studies/sand/
46. Green + Growth: Singapore from Above - ArcGIS StoryMaps, https://storymaps.arcgis.com/stories/34ac438da27d45c1b536ff702f6e04d8
47. Geography of Singapore - Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography_of_Singapore
48. Land Area (As At June), Annual | SINGSTAT | data.gov.sg, https://data.gov.sg/datasets/d_d5472d7368d6547892138f779872bbff/view
49. Opposition grows to Indonesia's resumption of sea sand exports - Mongabay, https://news.mongabay.com/2023/07/indonesia-sea-sand-export-dredging-reclamation-singapore-islands-marine-fisheries/
50. Singapore completes first polder project, reclaims 800ha of land at Pulau Tekong - CNA, https://www.channelnewsasia.com/singapore/polder-pulau-tekong-first-land-reclamation-military-training-hdb-pub-5332341
51. April 2017 - Bharatkalyan97, http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.com/2017/04/
52. Sand smuggling in Southeast Asia - Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sand_smuggling_in_Southeast_Asia
53. The Mountainous and Surreal Sand Reserves of Singapore, https://www.untappedcities.com/the-mountainous-and-surreal-sand-reserves-of-singapore/
54. Transport of sand material to stockpile at Tuas View Extension - GAC, https://www.gac.com/hot-port-news/transport-of-sand-material-to-stockpile-at-tuas-view-extension
55. Dutch polder concept as new land reclamation method at Pulau Tekong - Deltares, https://www.deltares.nl/en/expertise/projects/singapore-adopts-dutch-polder-concept-as-new-land-reclamation-method-at-pulau-tekong
56. Tekong Polder | PUB, Singapore's National Water Agency, https://www.pub.gov.sg/Resources/News-Room/PressReleases/2025/09/Tekong-Polder
57. Great Wall of Sand | Military Wiki | Fandom, https://military-history.fandom.com/wiki/Great_Wall_of_Sand
58. Strategy and law in the South China Sea disputes workshop report - UNSW Sydney, https://www.unsw.edu.au/content/dam/pdfs/unsw-canberra/research/research-excellence/2023-01-south-china-sea-workshop-report.pdf
59. The Rise of a Great Wall of Sand in the South China Sea - Lund University Publications, https://lup.lub.lu.se/student-papers/record/9143733/file/9143736.pdf
60. China's New Spratly Island Defenses - Asia Maritime Transparency Initiative, https://amti.csis.org/chinas-new-spratly-island-defenses/
61. China Tracker | Asia Maritime Transparency Initiative, https://amti.csis.org/island-tracker/china/
62. Subi Reef | Asia Maritime Transparency Initiative - CSIS, https://amti.csis.org/subi-reef/
63. China's Spratly ISR and EW Upgrades | Asia Maritime Transparency ..., https://amti.csis.org/chinas-spratly-isr-and-ew-upgrades/
64. A Constructive Year for Chinese Base Building | Asia Maritime Transparency Initiative, https://amti.csis.org/constructive-year-chinese-building/
65. South China Sea Arbitration Ruling: What Happened and What's Next?, https://www.uscc.gov/sites/default/files/Research/Issue%20Brief_South%20China%20Sea%20Arbitration%20Ruling%20What%20Happened%20and%20What's%20Next071216.pdf
66. Document: South China Sea Tribunal Decision - USNI News, https://news.usni.org/2016/07/12/document-overview-south-china-sea-tribunal-decision
67. Draft 23 December 2016 Artificial Islands in the South China Sea: The Legal Regime and Implications of the Award J. Ashley Roac - NUS Centre for International Law, https://cil.nus.edu.sg/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/Session-4-on-Installations-Artificial-Islands-and-Structures-J-Ashley-Roach-Paper.pdf
68. Chinese Power Projection Capabilities in the South China Sea | Asia Maritime Transparency Initiative, https://amti.csis.org/chinese-power-projection/
69. China will again triple dredging and will have over 50 fortified islands by 2030 in South China Sea, https://imoa.ph/china-will-triple-dredging-will-50-fortified-islands-2030-south-china-sea/
70. Tian Jing Hao | Dredgepoint, https://dredgepoint.org/equipment/tian-jing-hao
71. Competing without Fighting, https://csis-website-prod.s3.amazonaws.com/s3fs-public/2023-08/230802_Jones_CompetingwithoutFighting.pdf?VersionId=Zb5B2Le0lf0kk7.QH7E0meA9phGqQEZf
72. MV Tian Kun Hao - Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MV_Tian_Kun_Hao
73. Asia's largest dredging vessel returns after completing sea trial - Xinhua | English.news.cn, http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2019-01/09/c_137731266.htm
74. Chinese dredger contributes to high-quality construction of Belt and Road - DredgeWire, https://dredgewire.com/chinese-dredger-contributes-to-high-quality-construction-of-belt-and-road/
75. China reclaiming land in 5 reefs? - Philstar.com, https://www.philstar.com/headlines/2014/06/13/1334238/china-reclaiming-land-5-reefs
76. The South China Sea Arbitration, Independent Expert Report - Coral Reef Environment, 26 Apr 2016 - Jus Mundi, https://jusmundi.com/en/document/other/en-the-south-china-sea-arbitration-the-republic-of-philippines-v-the-peoples-republic-of-china-independent-expert-report-coral-reef-environment-tuesday-26th-april-2016
77. A step-change to Beijing's "lawfare" in the South China Sea | Lowy Institute, https://www.lowyinstitute.org/the-interpreter/step-change-beijing-s-lawfare-south-china-sea
78. Institute for National Defense and Security Research-Defense Security Brief, https://indsr.org.tw/en/respublicationcon?uid=15&resid=3001&pid=5368
79. The Import of Hybrid Activities in the South China Sea - Air University, https://www.airuniversity.af.edu/JIPA/Display/Article/3532882/the-import-of-hybrid-activities-in-the-south-china-sea/
80. Think Small to Win Big in the South China Sea | Proceedings - U.S. Naval Institute, https://www.usni.org/magazines/proceedings/2022/july/think-small-win-big-south-china-sea
81. The Legal Victory of the Philippines against China - Global Challenges, https://globalchallenges.ch/issue/1/legal-victory-for-the-philippines-against-china-a-case-study/
82. The South China Sea Arbitration Award - U.S. Naval War College ..., https://digital-commons.usnwc.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2946&context=ils
83. RIAA XXXIII: The South China Sea Arbitration between the Republic of the Philippines and the People's Republic of China, Award - OFFICE OF LEGAL AFFAIRS |, https://legal.un.org/riaa/cases/vol_XXXIII/153-617.pdf
84. The Legal Regime of Islands after the South China Sea Award—Orphaned or Influential? An Essay in Honor of Ted L. McDorman, https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00908320.2024.2413612
85. CHINA'S CLAIMS DASHED IN SOUTH CHINA SEA ARBITRATION - 6 St James Hall Chambers, https://sixthfloor.squarespace.com/s/Stephens-T_LSJ-August-2016-Final-copy.pdf